二语习得复习提纲
Chapter I Introduction Describing and Explaining L2 Acquisition
1.1What is second language acquisition?
Second language refers to any language that is learned subsequent to the mother tongue.
1.2What are the goals of second language?
The goals of SLA are to describe how L2 acquisition proceeds and to explain this process and why some learners seem to be better at it than others.
1.3Two case studies of L2 learners
1.3.1 A case study of an adult learner
1.3.2 A case study of two child learners What do these case studies show us?
a. They raise a number of important methodological issues relating to how L2 acquisition should be studied
b. They raise issues relating to the description of learner language
c. They point out some of the problems researchers experience in trying to explain L2 acquisition.
1.4Methodological issues
What is that needs to be described?
a. What it means to say that a learner has acquired a feature of the target language? b. Whether learners have acquired a particular feature?
c. How to measure whether acquisition has taken place? (Learner 's overuse of linguistic forms.)
1.5Issues in the description of learner language
a. Learners make errors of different kinds.
b. Learners acquired a large number of formulaic chunks, which will influence their performance in
communication and the fluency of their unplanned speech. c. Whether learners acquire the language systematically?
1.6Issues in the explanation of L2 acquisition
Item learning: formulaic chunks System learning: rules Internal (mentalist) account:
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External account:
Chapter2 the Nature of Learner Language
2.1Errors and error analysis
2.1.1 Identifying errors
2.1.1.1 Compare the learner 's language with the normal ones. 2.1.1.2 Distinguish errors and mistakes. Definition:
Errors reflect gaps in a learner 's knowledge Mistakes reflect occasional lapses in performance.
Methods: a. Check the consistency of learners 'performance. b. Ask them to correct their own
utterance.
Errors and mistakes: 2.1.2 Describing errors
Methods: a. error type oriented:
b. error maker oriented:
Meaning: Classifying errors in these ways can help us to diagnose learners 'learning problems at any one stage of their development and, also to plot how changes in error patterns occur over time. 2.1.3 Explaining errors
Errors are systematic, predictable, and some of them are universal: (Learners has constructed
some kind of “rule 〞 , albeit a rule different from that of the target language)
Eg: omission: leave out the article fhe \" , leave out the — in plural nouns Overgeneralization
error: eated---ate
Transfer errors reflect learners attempt to make use of their L1 knowledge.
2.1.4 Error evaluation
Types of errors: Global errors: violate the whole structure of the sentence
Local errors: affect only a single constituent in the sentence
2.2Developmental patterns
2.2.1 The early stage of L2 acquisition
Silent period: children make no attempt to say anything to begin with.
This period makes a preparation for subsequent production.
Trials and errors: Mulaic chunks: they provide learners with the means of performing useful language functions such as greetings and requests. Eg:“How do you do? 〞 “My name is___ 〞
Propositional simplification: leave words out
Eg: “Me no blue 〞
2.2.2 The order of acquisition
Accuracy order: there is a definite accuracy order and that this remains more or less the same
irrespective of the learner 's mother tongues, age, and whether or not they have receive formal
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language instruction.
2.2.3 Sequence of acquisition
a. The acquisition of a particular grammatical structure, therefore, must be seen as a process
involving transitional constructions.
b. Acquisition follows a U shaped course of development.
c. The process in which learners reorganize their existing knowledge in order to accommodate
new knowledge is called restructuring. 2.2.4 Some Implications
a. L2 is systematic and universal, reflecting ways in which internal cognitive mechanisms control acquisition, irrespective of the personal background of learners or the settings in which they learn.
b. Some linguistic features are inherently easier to learn than others.
2.3Variability in learner language
a. Variability is also systematic , that is, learners use their linguistic sources in predictable ways. b. Learners vary in their use of the second language according to linguistic context (George playing football/ ..all the time) situational context.(kids/daughter)
& psycholinguistic context (prepared/unprepared) c. form-function mapping d. free variation: e. fossilization:
石化成因
任何现象的出现都不是偶然的 ,是可以追溯出它的原因的 ,二语习得过程中出现的中介语石化 现象也是有着根本性的原因的。 Selinker 从中介语理论的分析角度将石化现象形成的原因归 纳为五个过程 :母语迁移、培训转移、二语学习策略、 二语交际策略和目的语过度概括。 Selinker 对石化的解释更多的是石化的主要表现
，而没有找出石化的根本原因。 后来,Ellis又对Selinker
和 Lamendella 的研究作了如下总结 :(1)内因 :年龄因素 :即当学习者到达一定的关键期 ,他们的 大脑失去了可塑性 ,因而就无法掌握某些语言特征 ;缺乏与目的语社会文化融合的欲望 :由于 各种不同的社会和心理因素 ,学习者对承受目的语文化标准不做出努力。
(2)外因 :交际压力 :
:肯
持续不断的交流压力要求使用目的语超出了学习者的语言能力导致石化的发生。 缺乏学习时 机:学习者缺乏获得输入和使用第二语言的时机。反应性质：对学生第二语言使用的影响 有助于消除石化。 应对策略
(一)增加二语的输入量 大多数二语的初学者如果得不到足够的二语的陈述性知识 ,就会出现语言的
定的认知回馈 (表示“我明白你的话〞 )导致石化的发生 ;否认的回馈 (表示“我听不懂你的话〞 )
稳定期。所以外
语教学中 ,当学习者已经到达某种精通程度后 ,应该增加他的二语输入量。二语的输入既要重 视数量又要重视质量。课堂教学材料要多样化 ,当前的许多教材应该编辑一系列激发二语学 习动机的语境和篇章 ,如报刊文章、海报、广告等。学生应尽可能多利用课外听、说、读写 资源和任何可以增加二语输入量的时机。第二语言的输入应该包括音位知识、语法和词汇。 第二语言知识的积累还应该包括相关的文化知识输入。 对语言迁移的研究说明学习者对语言 的标志性特征比拟敏感 ,所以某种语言的一般特征而不是可区别性特征更容易导致石化。这 样 ,为了防止石
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化 ,语言学习者需要比拟母语和目的语的文化 表达上的异同来减少母语的迁移。
(二)融合听、说、读、写四种技能促进自动化和认知 以认知理论对二语学习所做的分析为根底 ,
,找出存在于两种语言之间构造
针对我国大多数英语学习者产生石化的主要原因，
并借鉴 Brown 的建议 ,针对中级学习者 ,我们可以适当采取综合听、说、读、写四种技巧的教 学方法 :第一种是以内容为中心的教学 (content-based teaching), 这种教学以教授某专业的内 容为主 ,把英语作为学习该专业的交流手段 ,学生要想学好专业课 ,必须使自己的英语在听、 说、 读、写等方面都到达一定的水平才能取得成功 ;第二种是以主题为中心的教学 (theme-based
teaching), 这种教学方法围绕某一能够激发学生兴趣的主题或话题组织教学。 例如英语精读课
就可以围绕公共卫生、环境意识、世界经济等课题展开教学 ,目前在我国这种方法已被普遍 采用 ,但由于教师的准备不够 ,更重要的是由于教材的编制不能满足或跟上实际需要 ,所以没 能到达这种方法的最正确效果 ;第三种是以任务为中心的教学 (task-based teaching), 这种方法 更注重语言在实际运用中功能的实现 ,在课堂上语言知识的输入以各种真实的资料为主 ,如面 试、采访、公告、菜单等 ,要求学习者使用所学的英语知识在实际生活中完成某一具体任务
,
这样就突出了语言的功能性特点。对于高级英语学习者来说 ,提供真实的语境是当务之急 ,学 习者可以通过大量观看原版英文电影、 英语电视节目以及用英语写影评、 日记等方式来弥补 缺少真实语境的缺乏 ,另外尽可能多地和外教或本族语是英语的外国人交流并充分利用互联 网最大限度地使自己接触自然真实的英语语境。
Chapter 3 Interlanguage
3.1 Behaviorist Learning Theory
Language learning theory is like any other kind of learning in that it involves habit formation. But it is not adequate to adequately account for L2 acquisition, since learners frequently do not produce output that simply reproduce input.
Habit--stimulus-- response connection
3.2 A mentalist theory in language learning
? Main ideas of this theory
? 1. Only human beings are capable of learning language. ?
2. The human mind is equipped with a faculty for learning Acquisition Device( 语言习得机制〕 .
3. This faculty is the primary determinant of LA.
4. Input is needed, but only to 'trigger' the operation of the language acquisition device.
Ianguage 七anguage
? ?
3.3 What is fhterlanguagg
It refers to the systematic knowledge of an L2 that is independent of both the target and the lear ner's L1. . A lear ner's in terla nguage is a unique lin guistic system.
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The premises of in terla nguage
1.1 nterlanguage is viewed as a 'mental grammar'.〔心理语法〕 2. The learmer's grammar is permeable.〔渗透性〕 3. The lear ner's grammar is tran siti on al.〔迁移〕
4. The systems lear ners con struct con tain variable rules.多变
5. Lear ners employ various lear ning strategies to develop their in terla nguage. 〔学习策
略〕
6. The lear ner's grammar is likely to fossilize.〔石化〕 1. Men tal Grammar
The learner constructs a system of abstract linguistic rules which underlies comprehe nsion and product ion of the L2. This system of rules is viewed as a 'me ntal grammar' and is referred to as an 'in terla nguage'. 2. Permeable
The grammar is ope n to in flue nee from the outside (i.e. through the in put). It is also in flue need from the in side. (i.e.omissi on, overge neralisati on) computati onal model of L2 acquisiti on
3. Tran siti onal
I A B W ----------------- > ------------- ? ------------- 7 外语
----------------- ▽ --------------- *
中介语
Learners change their grammar from one time to another by adding rules, deleting rules, and recon struct ing the whole system.
This results in an interlanguage continuum( 连续体) eg. Paint paint, painting 4. Variable
Some researchers have claimed that the systems lear ners con struct contain variable rules. That is, the learners are likely to have competing rules at any one stage of developme nt.
Other researchers argue that interlanguage systems are homogenerous and that variability reflects the mistakes lear ners make whe n they try to use their kno wledge to com mun icate.
5.learning strategies
Learners employ various learning strategies to develop their interlanguages. The differe nt kinds of errors lear ners produce reflect differe nt lear ninf strategies. 6. Fossilizati on
Selinker suggested that only about 5% of learners go on to develop the same mental grammar as n ative speakers.
paint, painting, pain ted
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3.4 Computational model of L2 acquisition
? in put -intake T2 kno wledge
output
J
'Black box' of the learner's mind=interlanguage constructed Other ways to elaborate this basic model
'Social context' added to explain how the nature of the input varies from one setting to another 'L2 knowledge' broken up into two or more components to reflect the different kinds of knowledge learners constructs.
e.g. explicit knowledge about language & implicit knowledge of language(P35) An arrow can be drawn from 'output' to 'input'.
Chapter 4 Social aspects of interlanguage
4.1 Interlanguage as a stylistic continuum 风( 格连续体 )
Stylistic continuum:
a. careful style 慎重体 b. vernacular style 通俗体
Problems: a. Learners are not always most accurate in their careful style and least careful in their vernacular style.
b. the role of social factors remains unclear.
Accommodation theory:
How social groups influence the courses of L2 acquisition. (Convergence, divergence)
4.2 The acquisition model of L2 acquisition( 儒化模式 )
Social distance, psychological distance, pidginization
4.3 Social identity and investment in L2 learning
Cultural capital is needed to invest in language learning.
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Chapter 5 Discourse Aspects of Interlanguage
5.1Acquiri ng discourse rules
? Discourse rules refer to the rules or regularities in the ways in which native speakers hold con
versati ons.
5.2The role of in put and in teract ion in L2 acquisiti on
Stephen Krashen
input
[力
Michael Long intersction hypothesis W7 / 4 \\ 11. \\ / J Evelyn Hatch
]
/
«
scaffolding
//
L. S. Vygotsky
L
sone of proximal developm ent
1. Stephe n Krashe n ' s in put hypothesis
L2 acquisiti on takes place whe n a lear ner un dersta nds in put that contains grammatical forms that are at in terla nguage).
L2 acquisiti on depe nds on comprehe nsible in put. 〔可理解的语言输入 ) Current state: i
next adva ncing state: i+1
(arei-allittle more adva need tha n the curre nt state of the lear ner
2. Michael Long ' s interaction hypothesis动假说〕
Michael Long' s interaction hypothesis also emphasizes the importanee of comprehe nsible in put but claims that it is most effective whe n it is modified through the n egotiati on of meaning
〔意义协商〕
3. Evelyn Hatch: Scaffoldi ng
Evelyn Hatch emphasizes the collaborative endeavors of the learners and their in terlocutors in con struct ing discourse and suggests that syn tactic structures can grow out of the process of build ing the discourse
4. Scaffolding〔支架学习法〕
Lear ners use the discourse to help them produce uttera nces that they would not be
able to produce on their own.
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Mark:
Come here.
Homer: No come here.
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5.3The role of output in L2 acquisiti on
? Krashen: Speaking is the result of acquisition not its cause. The only way learners can lear n
from their output is by treat ing it as auto-i nput. ? ? ? ?
Merrill Swain: Comprehe nsible output also plays a part in L2 acquisiti on.
1) To serve a con scious ness-rais ing function by help ing lear ners to no tice gaps in their in terla nguages. 2) To test hypotheses.
3) To identify problems with it and discussing ways in which they can be put right.
Chapter 6 Psycholi nguistic aspects of in terla nguage
6.1 L仃ran sfer
Negative tran sfer Positive tran sfer Avoida nee
Con trastive an alysis Speech acts
In terla ngage developme nt cannot follow a restructuri ng continuum
6.2The role of con scious ness in L2 acquisiti on
Stephen Krashen
习冯 pequkrtd L2 know-edgfi
i.^.i npl toil *.rKwleC!te of the language
Developed subconsciousty Ihratigh comprehending input wtile connftjntcal r)g
■二屯 Isanwd'LJ knowtedga .s. exoE al k r4«vl^cige a anguage controversial Developed cansciously ttwougti delioeraie stuc^y of the L2.
Tiw two Kn 'kno咛昶gq syster a ee \"tireiy ir de oencent of or e anotner anc that ccnverted into 'accwired' kio^lecgs prficevi
二诵学习青縮翊， 能说出来的语肓規期知谟 L ■\" ■ '•切■ ■
4Li *.■
tin
■*!卜 r
sJ q !»
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Richard Schmidt
ConsciousnessSW
Intentionality意向 Attention 注意
Incidental learning伴薜片学
习; takes place when learners
pick up L2 knowledge through exposure
Intentionality: refer to whether Q
learner makes a conscious and deliberate decision 1o eam some L2 knowledge
No matter whether learning is intentional or incidental it involves conscious attention to features in the input.
Schmidt argues that lear ning cannot take place without what he calls no tici ng.
Implicit kno wledge: the result of an automatic process 隐性知识：二语学习者能用但表达不出来的
直觉知识
Explicit kno wledge: the result of an effortful process
显性知识：二语学习者能意识到、 能说出来的语言规那么知识
The ways that explicit knowledge may aids learners in development implicit knowledge
1. Interface, explicit knowledge ------------- implicit knowledge
convert into
2. Facilitate the process by whicff learners attend to features in the input
3. Intake ” acquisition
notice the gap
It is perhaps self-evide nt that all la nguage users, in cludi ng L2 lear ners, know rules that
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guide their performa nee without any aware ness of what the rules con sist of always reflect on this implicit knowledge 隐性知识,thus making it explicit.
It is also clear that L2 learners may have knowledge about the L2 （i.e. explicit knowledge 显性知识）but be unable to use this knowledge in performanee without conscious attention . 6.3 Process ing operati ons
Operating principles
The study of the L1 acquisition of many different Ianguages has led to the identification of a number of general strategies which children use to extract and segme nt lin guistic in formati on from the Ian guage they hear.
Examples: avoid in terruptio n
rearra ngeme nt of lin guistic un its avoid excepti ons
Multidime nsional model
This theory sought to acco unt for both why lear ners acquire the grammar of a Ian guage in a defi nite order and also why some lear ners only develop very simple in terla nguage grammars. It distinguishes a developmental and a variational axis.
Process ing con stra ints
. They can
^^Processing constraints
典型顺序策略
This prevents them from irrterrupting the basic subjectverb-object word order.
首位/尾位策略
This enables learners to move elements at the end of a structure to the beginning and vive versa.
从属句策略
This permits movement of elements within m亦n clauses but blocks lhem in subordinate clauses.
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> Movement along the variational axis is determined by socio-psychological factors.
Learners who want to in teg rate into the target-language community progress rapidly along this axis Learners who want to maintain their own separate ▲ identities progress more slowly and sometimes not at all.
6.4 Commun icati on strategies Avoid problematic items
My brother made me to give him some money. Borrow a word from L1
Use ano ther target-la nguage word that is approximate in meaning Paraphrase the meaning of word Con struct an en tirely new word
Psycholi nguistic models to acco unt for the use of com muni cati on strategies
For example: Claus Faerch and Gabriele Kasper proposed a model of speech producti on.
The model of speech production
A planning phase An executnn phase Communication strategies are seen as part of the planning phase.
Abandon anddevelopreducton strategy Mai nta inach leve ment strateg y 6.5 Two types of computati onal model Serial processing:串行处理
Information is processed in a series of sequential steps and results in the representation of what has been learned as some kind of
Parallel distributed process ing: 并行处理
Learners with the ability to perform a nu mber of men tal tasks at the same time
‘ rule ' or ‘ strategy '
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Chapter 7 linguistic aspects of interlanguage
7.1Typological universals: relative clause
当代类型学是从微观的视角研究语言各个层面的类型特征与共性，通过对大量语言的观察， 统计和比照， 从中发现语言的普遍规律和形成这些规律的普遍性制约因素， 并探究其形成动 因，以解释和预测语言可能具有的变化模式， 从而提醒语言开展变化的本质。 当代类型学理 论中的“标记性〞， “蕴含共性〞和“语法层级〞对二语习得研究产生了巨大的影响，开启 了基于类型学理论的二语习得研究路径。
7.2Universal grammar
Chomsky argues that language is governed by a set of highly abstract principles that provide parameters which are given particular settings in different language.
7.3Learnability
Chomsky has claimed that children learning their L1 must rely on innate knowledge of language because otherwise the task facing them is an impossible one.
His argument is that the input to which children are exposed is insufficient to enable them to discover the rules of the language they are trying to learn. This insufficiency is referred to as the poverty of the stimulus.
7.4The critical period hypothesis语言学习关键期假设)
The critical period hypothesis states that there is a period during which language acquisition is easy and complete (i.e.native-speaker ability is achieved) and beyond which it is difficult and typically incomplete.
7.5Access to UG
1. Complete access 2. No access 3. Partial access 4. Dual access
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7.6Markedness
The degree of markedness correlates with the order of acquisition. 〔可标记等级与语言习得顺序是
相关的〕 一对语言特征包括两个对立体 : 有标记的和无标记的。 无标记成分：常见的，意义一般的，分布较广的。 有标记成分：反之。
7.7Cognitive verus linguistic explanation
如何对待这些语言学解释呢？ alternative ？ complementary ？
It depends on whether linguistic universals and markedness are seen as exerting a direct effect on L2 acquisition or whether the linguistic universals and markedness are seen as exerting a effect on L2 acquisition.
direct
Chapter 8 Individual differences in L2 acquisition (从心理学角度探究二语习
得的差异 )
The degree of anxiety they experience and their preparedness to take risks in learning and using L2.
8.1Language aptitude
1. 音位编码能力 Phonemic coding ability
2. 语法敏感度 Grammatical language learning ability 3. 归纳能力 Inductive language learning ability 4. 机械学习能力 Rote learning ability
8.2Motivation
1. Instrumental motivation 工具型动机 2. Integrative motivation 融入型动机 3. Resultative motivation 结果型动机
4. Intrinsic motivation 本能动机 学习过程中，四种动机相辅相成 (1). They are complementary rather than as distinct and oppositional (2) Motivation is dynamic in nature.
8.3Learning strategies
The particular approaches or techniques that learners employ to try to learn an L2
They can be behavioral: like repeating new words aloud to help you remember them.
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They can be mental: like, using the linguistic or situational context to infer the meaning of a new word.
1. 认知策略 Cognitive strategies ：个人学习时在心理上运用他以前学得的知识经历，
凭经历去区分，选择，思维，分析，归纳，从而获得新知识的一个方法
Cognitive strategies are those that are involved in the analysis, synthesis, or transformation of learning materials.
eg： Recombination which involves constructing a meaningful sentence by recombining known elements of the L2 in a new way.
2. 元认知策略 Meta-cognitive strategies are those involved in planning, monitoring and evaluating learning.
eg: selective attention 〔选择注意〕 where the learner makes a conscious decision to attend to particular aspects of the input 元认知策略：主体将自己的认知过程最为认知和意
识对象，并对认知活动的全过程 进展不断地， 自觉地监控和调节的执行策略。
3. 交际策略 / 情感策略
Social strategies /affective strategies concern the ways in which learners choose to interact with other speakers.
eg: questioning for clarification(i.e. asking for repetition, a paraphrase, or an example. 交际
策略 / 情感策略：与别人合作交往的策略
Which strategies are important for L2 acquisition?
Successful learners pay attention to both form and meaning.
Good language learners are also very active (i.e. they use strategies for taking charge of their own learning)
They also show awareness of three learning process and their own personal learning styles and, are flexible and appropriate in their use of learning strategies. Other studies:
Successful learners use more strategies than unsuccessful learners. Different strategies are related to different aspects of L2 learning.
Successful learners may also call on different strategies at different stages of their development.
Strategies involve formal practice 形式操作策略 contribute to the development of linguistic competence , like rehearsing a new word.
Strategies involving functional practice 功 能 操 作 策 略 aid the development of communicative skills , like seeking out native speakers to talk to.
Chapter 9 Instruction and L2 Acquisition
9.1Form focused instruction
Does it work?
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How significant the effects of instructions actually are? Teachabilty hypothesis 可教性假说 1. 取决于教学的本质。 2.
取决于目标构造的本质 。
3. 只有在学习者拥有持续的听，用，目标语的时候才有用。 What kind of form-focused instruction works best?
1. Distinction between Production based instruction and Input based instruction 2. consciousness-raising
9.2Lear ning -n structi on matchi ng 因材施教
9.3Strategy training 策略训练
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二语习得复习提纲
Chapter 10 Multiple perspective in SLA
1. There is no single metaphor that can encompass all the metaphors that SLA has drawn on to explain how learners acquire an L2.
2. Someone argue that SLA needs to engage in the careful elimination of theories to demonstrate its maturity as a discipline.
Others argue that L2 is a highly complex phenomenon and that, therefore, multiple theories are both inevitable and desirable. 3.1 Some researchers have been primarily concerned with language pedagogy and have seen SLA as contributing to more effective language teaching.
3.2 Others have seen more concerned with linguistics and have seen SLA as a way of testing hypothesis about the nature of language.
3.3 Still others have been concerned with the sociology of multilingual communities and are interested in SLA because it serves to illustrate how social context affects and is affected by language.
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