Semantics
IV. Define the following terms:
31. Semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.
32. Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.
33. Reference: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience
34. Synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.
35. Polysemy: Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.
36. Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. , different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.
37. Homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones
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38. Homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.
39. Complete homonyms: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.
40. Hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.
41. Antonymy: Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning. 42. Componential analysis: It defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components, or semantic features.
43. The grammatical meaning: The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. , its grammatical well-formedness . The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.
44. Predication: The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.
45. Argument: An argument is a logical participant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element (s) in a sentence.
46. Predicate: A predicate is something that is said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.
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47. two-place predication : A two-place predication is one which con-tains two arguments.
Pragmatics
IV. Define the following terms:
31. Conversational implicature: In our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with each other, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers’presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to mislead them. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having a conversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withhold relevant information from one another. However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words is called conversational implicature.
32. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, such as Watch out (= a warning).
33. Locutionary act: A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood.
34. Horn’s Q-principle: (1) Make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity); (2) Say as much as you can (given R).
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37. Pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
38. Context: Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. 39. Utterance meaning: the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
40. Sentence meaning: The meaning of a sentence is of-ten considered as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. 41. Constative: Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were verifiable ;
42. Performative: performatives, on the other hand, were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Their function is to perform a particular speech act.
43. Locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
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44. illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something. 45. Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the act per-formed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. 46. Cooperative Principle: It is principle advanced by Paul Grice. It is a principle that guides our conversational behaviours. The content is: Make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
Historical Linguistics
IV. Define the following terms:
51. Apocope: Apocope is the deletion of a word-final vowel segment. 52. Metathesis: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis. It involves a reversal in position of two neighbouring sound segments.
53. Derivation: It is a process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems or words.
54. Back-formation: It is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the supposed suffix of an existing word.
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55. Semantic narrowing: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.
56. Protolanguage: It is the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist.
57. Haplology: It refers to the phenomenon of the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence.
58. Epenthesis: A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.
59. Compounding: It is a process of combining two or more than two words into one lexical unit.
60. Blending: It is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.
61. Semantic broadening: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation.
62. Semantic shift: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related, meaning.
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63. Great Vowel Shift: It is a series of systematic sound change at the end of the Middle English period approximately between 1400 and 1600 in the history of English that involved seven long vowels and consequently led to one of the major discrepancies between English pronunciation and its spelling system.
64. Acronym: An acronym is a word created by combining the initials of a number of words.
65. Sound assimilation: Sound assimilation refers to the physiological effect of one sound on an-other. In an assimilative process, successive sounds are made identical, or more similar, to one another in terms of place or manner of articulation, or of haplology.
Sociolinguistics
IV. Define the following terms:
43. Sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social contexts.
44. Speech community: The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech community or a speech community is a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must, in some reasonable way, interact linguistically
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with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties, as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms.
45. Speech variety: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers. The distinctive characteristics of a speech variety may be lexical, phonological, morphological, syntactic, or a combination of linguistic features.
46. Language planning: language standardization is known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling systems, across regional boundaries.
47. Idiolect: An idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that com-bines aspects of all the elements regarding regional, social, and stylistic variation, in one form or another. In a narrower sense, what makes up one’s idiolect includes also such factors as voice quality, pitch and speech rhythm, which all contribute to the identifying features in an individual' s speech. 48. Standard language: The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the
government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.
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49. Nonstandard language: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard languages
50. Lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.
51. Pidgin: A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication. 52. Creole: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech community.
53. Diglossia: Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations. 54. Bilingualism: Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.
55. Ethnic dialect: Within a society, speech variation may come about because of different ethnic backgrounds. An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language, often cutting across regional differences. An ethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation, such as racial discrimination or segregation.
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56. Sociolect: Social dialects, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.
58. Slang: Slang is a casual use of language that consists of expressive but non-standard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinages and figures of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.
59. Taboo: taboo, or rather linguistic taboo, denotes any prohibition by the polite society on the use of particular lexical items to refer to objects or acts. 60. Euphemism: A euphemism, then, is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substituted when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.
32. Regional dialect: Regional dialect, also social or class dialect, is a speech variety spoken by the members of a particular group or stratum of a speech community.
33. Register: Register, also situational dialect, refers to the language variety appropriate for use in particular speech situations on which degrees of formality depends.
Language Acquisition
IV. Explain the following terms:
43. Caretaker speech: It is the modified speech typically addressed to young children. Such modified speech is called babytalk, motherses, or parentese.
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44. Holophrastic sentences: They are children' s one-word utterances. They are called holophrastic sentences, because they can be used to express a concept or predication that would be associated with an entire sentence in adult speech.
45. Telegraphic speech: They are the early multiword utterances of children which typically lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories. Some function words are altogether missing. What occur in these multiword utterances are usually the \"substantive\" or \"content\" words that carry the main message. Because of their resemblance to the style of language found in telegrams, utterances at this acquisition stage are often called telegraphic speech.
46. Second language acquisition: Second language acquisition (SLA) is a general term which refers to the acquisition of a second language (L2) , in contrast with first language acquisition (FLA). SLA is also used as a general term to refer to the acquisition of a foreign or subsequent language (such as a third or fourth language). Thus, SLA is primarily the study of how learners acquire or learn an additional language after they have acquired their first language (LI).
47. Acquisition: According to Krashen, acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.
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48. Learning: Learning, however, is defined by Krashen as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.
49. Transfer: It refers to the phenomenon that learners subconsciously use their LI knowledge in learning a second language.
50. Interlanguage: It is a series of internal representations that comprises the learner's interim knowledge of the target language. This is the language that a learner constructs at a given stage of SLA. Interlanguage consists of a series of interlocking and ap-proximate linguistic systems in-between and yet distinct from the learner's native and target languages. It represents the learner' s transitional competence moving along a learning continuum stretching from one' s LI competence to the target language competence. 51. Fossilization: it is a process that sometimes occurs in second language learning in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes in the target language.
52. Instrumental motivation: Adults are motivated to learn a second language in order to use it functionally. In other words, the learners desire to learn a second language because it is useful for some functional,
“instrumental”goals. This motivation is called instrumental motivation. 53. Integrative motivation: Adults are motivated to learn a second language in order to use it socially. In other words, the learners learn a second
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language in order to communicate with native speakers of the target language.
54. Acculturation: It is the process of adapting to the new culture of the L2 com-munity.
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